The Automobile
David J.
Andrea and Michael S. Flynn, "Automobile," World
Book Online Americas Edition,
Automobile
is the most important means of personal transportation for many
millions of people around the globe. People depend on their cars
and trucks to travel to and from work, to run errands, to visit
friends, and to take vacations. Companies and government
organizations operate commercial fleets of automobiles.
The United States, Canada, Japan, Western European countries, and
other developed nations have the most automobiles. But even in
developing nations, more and more people own cars, and
bumper-to-bumper traffic clogs the streets of big cities in many
of those countries.
The origin of the automobile can be traced to Europe. But it
became a major form of transportation first in the United States.
Most European cars were built by hand. They were expensive, and
few people could afford them. In the early 1900's, Ransom E.
Olds, Henry Ford, and other pioneer automakers began
mass-producing cars. Although some people disliked the
"horseless carriage," many welcomed the introduction of
the new machine because it would replace horse-drawn carriages.
Unsightly horse droppings would no longer litter the streets,
creating a stench and attracting disease-bearing flies. No longer
would people be burdened by the need to keep horses or be limited
to traveling short distances.
The giant U.S. auto industry developed over the years as an
increasing number of people bought cars. Americans were said to
have a love affair with the automobile, and the United States
became a nation on wheels. The automobile revolutionized the
American way of life and would change living patterns in much the
same way when it spread to other countries. The automobile helped
give people the freedom to live, work, and travel wherever they
wanted. It ended the lonely lives of farm families by placing
neighbors, cities, and towns within easy reach. The automobile
led to the growth of suburbs, motels, shopping centers,
superhighways, theme parks, drive-in restaurants, and
drive-through banks.
But along with all the glories of the automobile culture came
serious problems. Car accidents became a major cause of death and
injury throughout the world, exhaust fumes fouled the air, and
the roar of city traffic became nerve-racking. Some people
yearned for the old days before the automobile, when life seemed
simpler, slower, and gentler. But there could be no going back.
The automobile had become woven into the fabric of modern life.
And the auto industry itself had become basic to the economic
well-being of developed countries. Today, many developing nations
also seek to set up an automotive industry because it generates
and supports a wide range of businesses, such as automobile
dealerships, garages, and filling stations, and so can stimulate
economic growth.
The importance of automobiles
The development of automobiles has had an enormous effect on
people's way of life throughout much of the world. Probably no
other invention, discovery, or technological advance has created
greater or more rapid changes in society.
Impact on society. The automobile has given many people
incredible freedom of movement. It enables them to decide where
they want to go and when. The automobile influences where people
live and work and how they spend their leisure time. The striking
changes in people's lives created by the automobile began in the
United States and have since spread across much of the globe,
especially in developed countries. But even in developing
nations, the automobile is increasingly reshaping patterns of
living.
When the first automobiles were produced, only the well-to-do
could afford them. Soon, however, prices declined as production
increased in response to the growing demand. The lower prices put
the automobile within reach of more and more people. Well-off
urban residents found car ownership cheaper than keeping a horse
and carriage. The growth in car ownership led to the building of
more and better roads, which further increased travel.
Although cars were first bought mainly by wealthy city folk, it
was country people who became the first large-scale group of car
owners. During the late 1890's, most people in North America and
Europe lived in rural areas and had little contact with people
more than 20 miles (32 kilometers) or so away. Many of these
people were farmers or residents of small towns that served
farmers. In the early 1900's, they became the first mass group of
car buyers. Automobiles enabled farmers to sell their goods
faster and farther away, and to travel more often and in greater
comfort than ever before.
Before the development of automobiles, urban workers walked,
bicycled, or rode trains or horse-drawn vehicles to their jobs.
But as roads improved and car ownership expanded, the freedom
provided by automobile ownership enabled more and more people to
move to the suburbs. By the mid-1950's, even factories had begun
to relocate in the suburbs.
Wherever people have easy access to automobiles, cars play a
major role in social life and the choice of recreational
activities. People find it fun to hop in the car and visit
friends and relatives, whether the drive takes a few minutes,
hours, or days. The automobile helps make it easy to organize
picnics, family reunions, and other get-togethers. Trips by
automobile to such places as theme parks, national parks, and
mountain and seashore resorts are a favorite type of vacation for
many people.
Economic impact. Such developed nations as the United
States, Japan, Germany, and Italy depend on automotive production
to provide jobs for millions of workers. But even in developed
nations with little or no automotive production—for example,
Norway and New Zealand—the widespread use of cars has become
vital to the economy. Filling stations, motels, restaurants, and
other businesses that serve automobile travelers are of major
importance to the economic well-being of all developed countries
and increasingly of developing ones. In addition, many developing
nations have begun making automotive vehicles or parts to
stimulate industry and to provide the vehicles needed for growth.
For example, China has promoted broad-based automotive
manufacturing, and the Philippines has expanded parts production
for export to carmakers in other countries. For more information
on the automobile's economic impact, see the section The
automobile industry.
Problems of safety. Each year, motor vehicle accidents
kill an estimated 300,000 people throughout the world. A high
percentage of those killed in automobile accidents are young
people. In fact, in the United States, traffic accidents are the
leading cause of death for people from 5 to 32 years old. Young
people also have the highest accident rate of all drivers.
Almost every accident results from one or more of these three
factors: the driver, the car, and the road. The same three
factors contribute to accident prevention.
Drivers are the chief factor in vehicle safety because they are
responsible for about two-thirds of all accidents. They cause
accidents by speeding, driving in the wrong lane, making improper
turns, and breaking other rules of safe driving. Many traffic
deaths involve drunken drivers. Alcohol slows a driver's
reflexes, reduces alertness and concentration, impairs vision,
and clouds judgment. The use of illegal drugs by drivers is also
a serious safety problem.
The automobile itself has become safer over the years because of
advances in its design and manufacture. Automakers must meet
strict government standards designed to prevent accidents and to
protect drivers and passengers. The standards to prevent
accidents involve the installation of government-specified
lights, reflectors, brakes, tires, windows, windshield wipers and
defrosters, and dashboard controls. Standards to protect car
occupants include the installation of seat belts or air bags,
head restraints, and bumper systems. Seat belts—when
used—are probably the main safety equipment. A driver must
not assume that the engine, brakes, lights, and steering system
always operate properly. All equipment should be tested
frequently.
Modern roadbuilding techniques have increasingly lowered the risk
of automobile accidents. To build safe roads, highway engineers
consider such factors as road foundations and surfaces, lighting,
guardrails, and grading. They carefully plan bypasses,
intersections, on-and-off ramps, traffic signals, and the number
of lanes.
Environmental impact. As automobiles burn gasoline, they
release hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides into
the air and so pollute it. Air pollution endangers people's
health and damages crops and livestock. Automobiles produce
terrible pollution in many of the world's big cities. Especially
severe pollution occurs in such cities as Los Angeles, Mexico
City, Tokyo, and Madrid, where the streets and highways are
choked with traffic.
In many countries, steps have been taken to control air pollution
caused by automobiles as well as by other sources. Government
agencies enforce emission standards that limit the amount
of pollution new automobiles may produce. The agency that
enforces these regulations in the United States is the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Automakers have made great progress in reducing the emission of
major pollutants by meeting the increasingly strict environmental
standards. From the 1960's to the 1990's, the emission of
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide by American-built cars was
reduced more than 95 percent and nitrogen oxides more than 90
percent. The reduction was achieved largely with the installation
of a catalytic converter in the exhaust system of cars.
The device changes carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons into carbon
dioxide and water vapor. In 1990, the U.S. Congress passed new
rules calling for even tougher limits on the emission of
pollutants.
How an automobile works
This section describes the major interconnected systems that
function together in the operation of an automobile. But first,
it may be helpful to understand the basic way in which the
typical car works.
Most automobiles made today have a front-mounted,
gasoline-burning engine; an automatic transmission; and
front-wheel drive. The typical engine is an internal-combustion
engine, which works by burning a mixture of gasoline and air
inside closed cylinders. When you turn the car's ignition key,
electric current from the battery causes the starting motor to
crank the engine. Pistons move up and down inside the engine's
cylinders. As the pistons move down, intake valves above the
cylinders open, and fuel and air are sucked into the cylinders.
The pistons then move back up the cylinders, compressing the
fuel-air mixture. Electric sparks from the ignition system's
spark plugs ignite the mixture, and the engine starts to run as
the pistons move rapidly.
Expansion of the burning gases forces the pistons down, and these
downstrokes provide the power that moves the car. The pistons'
downstrokes turn the crankshaft. Power travels from the
crankshaft to the transmission and, finally, to the front wheels.
Burned gases escape as the exhaust valves above the cylinders
open and the pistons move up, forcing the waste products out
through the catalytic converter, muffler, and tail pipe.
The power system. The heart of an automobile's power
system—indeed, the heart of the car itself—is the
engine. It produces the power that turns the wheels and that
generates the electric power to operate the lights and
accessories. The power system also includes (1) the fuel system,
(2) the exhaust system, (3) the cooling system, and (4) the
lubrication system.
The engine. Most automobiles have a gasoline engine. The
majority of cars have the engine in the front of the vehicle.
Others have it mounted in the rear or the middle. The engine
block, also called the cylinder block, houses the
engine's internal parts and provides the foundation for pumps,
pulleys, and other accessory parts. Blocks are cast from iron,
iron alloys, or aluminum. The engine block contains the cylinder
cavities in which the pistons move.
The number and arrangement of the cylinders varies among the
makes of cars. American cars have 4, 6, or 8 cylinders. Cars made
in other countries also have 2, 3, 5, or even 12. In most cases,
the cylinders are arranged either in a straight line or in two
equal rows set at an angle to form a V
The gasoline engine operates on a four-stroke cycle in most
cars. On the intake stroke, the piston moves down the
cylinder and draws in a fuel-air mixture as the intake valve
opens. The valve then closes, and the piston moves back up the
cylinder on the compression stroke, squeezing the fuel-air
mixture. At the top of the stroke, the spark plug ignites the
compressed mixture. The burning causes the gases to expand,
forcing the piston down in the power stroke. On the exhaust
stroke, the piston moves up again and pushes the burned gases
out the open exhaust valve. The exhaust valve then closes, the
intake valve opens, and the cycle starts again.
During the power stroke, the connecting rod transfers
energy from the piston to the crankshaft, which then transmits
the energy to the transmission. For a car's wheels to turn, the
up-and-down movement of the pistons must be converted to rotary
motion. The connecting rod and crankshaft do the job. The
connecting rod turns the pistons' up-and-down motions into the
crankshaft's rotary motion.
Highly advanced devices regulate modern engines. An electronic
control unit receives data regarding engine speed, air pressure
and temperature, and other factors. The unit uses the data to
regulate the timing of the ignition sparks and the fuel flow. It
adjusts the engine hundreds of times a minute.
For more information, see the article Gasoline
engine. To learn about other types of engines used in some
cars, see the articles Diesel engine; Rotary engine;
Turbine.
The fuel system stores fuel in a car's gasoline tank and
transports it to the engine. Most tanks hold 12 to 20 gallons (45
to 76 liters) and are made of steel or plastic. The fuel system
also mixes the gasoline with air. To burn efficiently, the
gasoline must first be vaporized into fine droplets and then
mixed with the air.
Most cars produced since the late 1980's use a system called fuel
injection, which times and delivers precise amounts of
gasoline. A pump in the fuel tank or mounted on the engine forces
the gasoline under high pressure from the tank through fuel lines
to fuel injectors. An injection system may be multiport or
single point. Most automobiles today have a multiport
system, also called a direct-port system, which has an
injector for each cylinder. A single-point system, on the other
hand, injects fuel into the throat of the intake manifold,
which is basically a pipe with a branch to each cylinder. The
standard injector has a needle valve. Electric current opens the
valve, allowing the pressurized fuel to spray out. See the
article Fuel
injection for more information.
Some older cars use a device called a carburetor to provide the
fuel-air mixture. But fuel injection has largely replaced the
carburetor. In a carbureted engine, it is difficult to control
the fuel precisely enough to achieve the low emissions and the
fuel efficiency demanded in today's cars. See Carburetor.
The exhaust system works with the emission control system.
The exhaust system removes the burned gases from the engine, and
the emission control system reduces air pollution.
Even with precise fuel injection controls, the engine does not
burn all the fuel completely and so produces emissions that may
be harmful. The burned and partly burned gases leave the engine
and enter a pipe or set of pipes called the exhaust manifold.
They then go through the exhaust pipe to the catalytic converter.
The interior of this device is divided into honeycomblike cells
or, less commonly, is packed with tiny pellets. The cell walls or
pellets are coated with certain rare metals, such as platinum,
palladium, and rhodium. As the exhaust flows over the metals, a
chemical process occurs that breaks down the pollutants into
safer emissions. See Catalytic converter.
Next, the exhaust gases pass to the muffler. Exhaust leaves the
engine rapidly and at a far higher temperature than the outside
air. If released directly into the air, the exhaust would expand
suddenly and create loud noise. A muffler uses a series of tubes
pierced with holes to cool and slow the exhaust before it exits
the car through the tail pipe. See Muffler.
While a car is moving or parked in the sun, gasoline evaporates
from the vehicle. This evaporation can release harmful
hydrocarbons into the atmosphere. A separate system controls such
emission by collecting the vapors and channeling them to the
engine for burning.
The cooling system keeps the engine from overheating,
which could damage it. Most automobiles use a coolant
consisting of about half water and half antifreeze. A pump on the
front of the engine circulates the coolant through passages
called water jackets, which surround the cylinders. The
coolant absorbs engine heat as it flows through the water
jackets. The heated coolant then passes through copper or
aluminum tubes in the radiator. Copper or aluminum fins around
the tubes absorb heat from the coolant in the tubes. The motion
of the car and, at slower speeds, the action of a fan, draw air
through the radiator. As the air moves between the fins, it
absorbs their heat. The cooled coolant returns to the engine, and
the process starts over. A thermostat controls the engine
temperature by regulating the flow of coolant through the
radiator.
The lubrication system delivers oil to the moving parts of
the engine. As the oil circulates through passages in the engine,
it spreads a film on the parts. Lubrication reduces friction and
so minimizes engine wear. The oil also helps cool the engine. Oil
is stored in a pan under the engine. A pump circulates oil from
the pan through a filter and then through lines to the engine.
The filter prevents impurities from entering the engine.
The power train, also called the drive train,
transmits power from the engine to the driving wheels—the
wheels that make a vehicle go. The power train's parts include
(1) the transmission and (2) the drive system.
The transmission gets power from the rotary movement of
the flywheel, a heavy disk that is turned by the
crankshaft. This rotary movement has two related aspects: speed
and torque. Speed refers to the rate of rotation, and
torque to twisting force. The transmission uses gears to vary the
ratio of speed to torque. For example, a car requires great
torque to be put into motion from rest. But as the car moves, it
needs less torque and more speed. The first gear, also
called low gear, provides the greatest torque and lowest
speed. As the car goes faster and the transmission shifts to
higher gears, torque decreases and speed increases.
If a car has a manual transmission, the driver shifts gears with
a gearshift. After the car has been put into motion and
gains speed, the driver shifts to second gear and then to
higher gears. Most manual transmissions in new cars have five
forward speeds and one reverse gear. When shifting gears, the
driver must step on the clutch to disconnect the engine from the
transmission.
If a car has an automatic transmission, the driver does not have
to operate a gearshift and clutch. To move ahead, the driver
simply slides the selector lever to the drive
position. A microcomputer and hydraulic oil pressure control the
transmission on the basis of the car's speed, shifting to the
gear that is best for a given driving condition. In new cars,
most automatic transmissions have three or four forward speeds
and one reverse gear. A torque converter connects the
flywheel to the automatic transmission. A torque converter
increases torque. It also enables the driver to have the
transmission in gear with the engine running slowly while keeping
the car from moving by lightly braking. See Transmission.
The drive system carries the engine's power from the
transmission to the wheels that move the car. Depending on the
automobile, these may be the front wheels, the rear wheels, or
both sets of wheels.
In a car with front-wheel drive, the front wheels not only
steer the vehicle but also drive it. A front-wheel drive combines
the engine, transmission, and differential under the hood.
The differential is a set of gears that enables an outside wheel
to rotate faster than an inside wheel as the car turns a corner.
The outside wheel travels farther when cornering, and so it must
rotate faster to cover more ground in the same time. Power from
the transmission is transferred through the differential to each
front wheel by a short bar called a half shaft. Cars with
front-wheel drive can be more compact than those with rear-wheel
drive. They also may have less power and cost less to buy and
operate. Most passenger cars and vans for private transportation
are front-wheel drive vehicles.
Cars with rear-wheel drive have a long drive shaft to
transfer power to the back wheels. The differential is attached
to the rear axle. Rear-wheel drive provides better weight
distribution, front to back, than does front-wheel drive. Better
weight distribution improves a car's handling performance. Most
pick-up trucks and vans for commercial use have rear-wheel drive,
as do many sport utility vehicles (SUV's).
A vehicle with four-wheel drive delivers power to all four
wheels. A transfer case distributes the power between the
front and rear wheels. Four-wheel drive provides good traction on
rough or slippery terrain. Many light trucks and SUV's and some
cars come with four-wheel drive. In many vehicles, the driver can
switch back and forth between four-wheel drive and two-wheel
drive.
Control systems include (1) the steering system and (2)
the brake system.
The steering system controls the front wheels. The
driver operates it with the steering wheel, which is atop the
steering column. Most new cars have a steering system with rack-and-pinion
gears. The pinion is a circular gear at the lower end of the
steering shaft. The pinion's teeth fit into the teeth of the
rack, a flat bar gear. As a driver turns the steering wheel left
or right, the pinion forces the rack to move in the opposite
direction. The rack turns the wheels in the direction opposite of
its own by means of a tie rod connected to each wheel.
Many cars have power steering, in which a hydraulic system
helps force the rack. A driver can turn the steering wheel far
more easily with power steering.
The brake system slows or stops an automobile. Cars
have brakes on all four wheels. All autos use disc brakes
on the front wheels, and most use drum brakes on the rear
wheels. Some cars have four-wheel disc brakes. Hydraulic pressure
operates both types of brakes. When a driver steps on the brake
pedal, brake fluid goes through brake lines to each wheel. The
pressure of the fluid forces a friction material to rub against
the discs or drums attached to the moving wheels. The resulting
friction slows or stops the wheels.
Cars with power brakes use the difference in pressure
between the engine and the surrounding atmosphere to help force
the fluid through the brake system. Power brakes make it easier
to push the brake pedal, but they do not stop a car any faster
than regular brakes. Many cars have an antilock-brake system,
which keeps the wheels turning in certain circumstances after the
brakes have been applied. The system helps keep a car from
skidding and is especially useful on wet roads. A computer
controls the antilock system. See Brake.
The support system. The tires, wheels, axles, and
suspension system support the weight of a car. In the past, the
frame—a rectangular arrangement of heavy steel
tubes—formed the bottom of the car and supported the weight
of the car's body. Most cars today do not have a separate body
and frame. Instead, they are constructed with a unitized body,
made of steel panels welded together to form the engine
compartment, the passenger compartment, and the trunk. The
underbody panels are welded to the body panels.
The suspension system enables the wheels to move up and down with
variations in the road surface. It thus helps protect the car
body and mechanical parts from the shock of bumps and holes. It
also provides better steering control and adds to the comfort of
a car's occupants.
Most suspension systems consist of springs and devices called shock
absorbers or simply shocks. A spring and shock are
attached to each wheel. As a tire hits a bump, the wheel is
forced upward and the spring and shock are compressed. As the
road levels out again, the spring and shock rebound, which forces
the wheel back downward. See Shock absorber.
The electrical system drives the starting and ignition
systems, the lighting system, and the comfort and convenience
systems. A 12-volt battery stores energy for the starter, which
begins the operation of the electrical system by cranking the
engine to life. As a car runs, an engine-powered
alternating-current generator—better known as an alternator—produces
power for the electrical system and recharges the battery. See Battery; Electric
generator; Ignition; Starter.
Comfort and convenience systems. Dashboard instruments
provide the driver with certain information. A speedometer
measures a car's speed, and an odometer records the total
distance a car has been driven. A fuel gauge tells how full the
gas tank is. Many cars have gauges that record oil pressure,
battery voltage, and the temperature of the engine coolant. Other
cars have warning lights to alert the driver to problems with oil
pressure, battery voltage, and engine temperature.
Virtually all cars come with a heater, which blows air warmed by
engine heat into the passenger compartment. Many cars also have
an air conditioner, an option that draws on engine power to
produce cool air. Other optional devices include audio equipment,
power door locks, power windows, and power mirrors. A
computer-operated mechanism called cruise control makes it
possible for a driver to cruise at a desired set speed without
stepping on the gas pedal.
Building an automobile
Most automakers bring out new models every year. But high costs
prevent them from making major changes or introducing an entirely
new car very often. Manufacturers make mostly minor yearly
changes to add features, to meet new standards, to correct
problems in earlier models, or to give the car a fresh look and
so attract buyers.
Developing a new vehicle—whether it is a major model change
or the introduction of an entirely new make—is a task that
requires many people, many processes, and many parts. From the
initial idea of what the car will be like until the first one is
sold takes two to four years. Automakers must therefore try to
predict what the market conditions, consumer tastes, and products
of their competitors will be several years ahead as they begin
designing and developing a new automobile.
Market research typically serves as the first step in
developing a new car. Manufacturers survey auto owners and people
in the age or income group the vehicle is aimed at to learn their
likes and dislikes. They also try to foresee people's concerns in
such areas as safety and the environment. Above all, automakers
try to forecast the demand for different kinds of vehicles, such
as small and large cars, trucks, and minivans.
Designers, engineers, marketing executives, and financial
officers study the market research. If a particular
market—for example, people wanting small economy cars or
large luxury automobiles—appears big enough for profitable
production, the firm's top executives may approve the new car
program. Such a program may cost hundreds of millions of U.S.
dollars—or up to several billion dollars if it requires new
assembly and engine plants.
Development of the concept begins after research has
identified the market for the vehicle. Automotive designers
create exterior colors, interior fabrics, and overall car design.
They make hundreds of drawings based on such factors as the
potential buyers' tastes, age, and income. The designers may work
for the manufacturer or an independent design firm. The design
staff chooses the best drawings for review by corporation
executives, who make the final selections. Designers enlarge
those drawings to full scale. Today, most of the design drawings
are created on a computer. This process, called computer-aided
design (CAD), enables automotive designers to create, test,
and modify their plans all on the computer.
Clay modelers turn the drawings into a concept car—a
full-sized model that resembles a real car. They cut and shape
the clay with machine tools that use data and instructions
obtained from the drawings. The modelers also use hand tools to
carve some tricky bends and openings in the car body. They then
apply adhesive film to the clay. The film reflects light, which
makes the shiny model resemble what the new car will look like in
the dealer's showroom. While artists make this model, other
specialists create interior models of the car's seats and
instrument panel.
The auto industry's rapidly expanding use of computers to
simulate physical properties and events is reducing the time it
takes to bring a vehicle to market. The industry uses fewer clay
models than in the past, and simulation is replacing many, but
not all, repetitions of tests, such as wind tunnel tests for
aerodynamics.
Workers next build a fiberglass body model based on the clay
model and interior models. The fiberglass body model is given
real tires, glass windows, doors, and interior and exterior trim.
It looks as much like a final production vehicle as possible.
After further reviews of the program and management approval,
development of the new car begins in full force.
Product engineering. A team of automotive engineers plans,
coordinates, and carries out the specifications for the new car
and the engineering of every needed part. In addition to the
manufacturer's engineers, the team may include engineers from
automotive suppliers and from independent engineering firms.
Some parts, such as the engine and transmission, need not be
developed for a new vehicle if the automaker has appropriate
designs. But many parts are newly created. Everything from
steering wheels and road wheels to headlights and taillights must
be specified. Computers now handle a large portion of automotive
engineering. Engineers rely on computer-aided engineering
(CAE) programs to design and draw parts, to combine the parts
into components, and to package the components into a
car's systems. In CAE, a scanner traces every line and curve on
the clay model, gathering information that is stored in the
computer. The computer is then used to produce engineering
drawings for making dies—the precision tools that
shape metals and other materials for the parts and components.
As parts and components are engineered, manufacturers have prototypes
of the vehicle assembled to test its design and engineering. The
prototypes may look nothing like the final car. American
automakers test prototypes on proving grounds in the dry
heat of Arizona, the humid heat of Florida, and the cold of
northern Canada. The prototypes put on tremendous mileage and may
be modified again and again until the manufacturer is satisfied
with the quality and cost of the components.
Automakers also use prototypes to test the planned car's
endurance and emissions control. The emission-control tests
involve running the prototypes 24 hours a day to cover 100,000
miles (160,000 kilometers). The endurance tests may cover twice
that distance. Prototypes are further used to check a vehicle's
safety. As engineers design the body, computers show how well the
car will protect occupants in a crash. But actual cars must be
crashed into walls to be sure they meet government standards for
impact protection. Prototypes cost hundreds of thousands of
dollars. If the prototypes fail the tests, they must be
redesigned and reengineered until they pass.
Manufacturing engineering involves developing the
production operations and specifying the equipment needed to make
and assemble the final vehicle. Prototypes can help manufacturing
engineers improve the production process. Assembly of the
prototypes often reveals design problems that can be corrected to
make assembly of the final car more efficient.
Materials purchasing is the job of buying from suppliers
the raw materials, parts, and components needed to build cars.
Automakers prepare specifications for steel, rubber, and other
raw materials. For parts and components, a manufacturer might
provide the supplier with blueprints to make them. Or the
manufacturer might specify the function and maximum dimensions
and let the supplier do the designing and engineering. Suppliers
often include the manufacturer's internal supplier divisions.
Internal and outside suppliers bid for the work.
About 50 percent of the value of European cars and up to 75
percent of the value of Japanese cars comes from outside
suppliers. For American cars, the value from outside suppliers
ranges from 50 percent to 75 percent, depending on the automaker.
Manufacturing involves making parts and components for the
new car and assembling them. Today, computers play a big role in
a car's manufacture. Companies use enterprise requirements
planning programs to schedule the quantities and timing of
parts for delivery to their plants. In computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM), computers operate machine tools that
make various parts and components. They also instruct robots that
weld and paint the body and do other tasks in assembling the car.
Manufacturing a car requires different processes to produce
different parts. In metal stamping, presses shape metal
into forms determined by dies. Small presses stamp out such parts
as brackets. Huge presses stamp out trunk lids, floors, roofs,
fenders, doors, and hoods. In casting, molten metal is
poured into a mold. The engine block is the major part cast. Forging
shapes steel or iron into desired forms by hammering. Crankshafts
and certain pieces of the suspension may be forged. Machining
involves using various tools to cut, grind, and shape precision
parts, such as those in engines and transmissions. Several
processes are used to shape a car's plastic equipment.
After the parts and components have been made, the car can be put
together on the assembly line, which may turn out up to 75 copies
of the car per hour. Final assembly includes welding and bolting
the body parts together, painting, installing the engine,
attaching the interior parts, and adding options. Assembly lines
have become more and more computerized, with robots doing many
tasks and cameras and lasers performing inspections. But the
assembly plant still requires much human labor to make sure all
parts and components—and the assembly itself—are of the
highest quality.
The automobile industry
The auto industry has become increasingly internationalized.
During the early 1920's, the United States made about 90 percent
of the world's cars. By the mid-1990's, it made about 20 percent.
Yet U.S. output has generally climbed since the 1920's. What has
happened is that worldwide production has skyrocketed—from
about 10
Compact cars and the even smaller subcompacts, as a rule,
cost the least to buy and operate. Larger mid-size cars offer
greater styling and room. Snappy sports cars and convertibles
appeal to many of the young and young at heart. Vans, trucks, and
SUV's also serve the lifestyle and personality of certain car
buyers today. Luxury automobiles attract wealthy buyers.
People in different countries often have different preferences
for automobiles. For example, European drivers are much more
likely to drive smaller passenger cars and to prefer manual
transmissions than U.S. drivers. United States and Canadian
drivers are more likely than Japanese drivers to choose pickup
trucks, vans, and SUV's over traditional passenger cars.
Major producing countries and companies. In the value of
its products, the automotive industry leads all other
manufacturing industries in Japan, the United States, and a
number of other countries. Most developed nations produce motor
vehicles. Many developing nations also manufacture cars and
trucks or assemble them for automakers of other countries. In
addition, more than 100 countries make parts and components.
The United States and Japan are the largest motor vehicle
producers. Other major producers include France, Germany, and
Spain. In general, the largest automaking countries also have the
largest markets for cars. The United States has the biggest car
market by far. Most countries with a large auto industry and a
large car market have a heavy import and export trade in cars.
Japan and the United States are the chief exceptions. Japan
imports a small share of the cars sold at home, and the United
States exports many vehicles to Canada, but only a small portion
to other countries.
The largest U.S. automakers are General Motors Corporation and
Ford Motor Company. They have thousands of suppliers, including
such giant corporations as USX Corporation, General Electric
Company, and TRW. Both companies produce, under different trade
names, a variety of cars and light trucks designed to meet the
needs, preferences, and incomes of different consumers. The two
companies, along with a third U.S. manufacturer, Chrysler
Corporation, were long known as the Big Three. Chrysler merged
with Germany's Daimler-Benz in 1998 to form the international
automaker DaimlerChrysler AG
Japan's major producers include Toyota Motor Corporation, Nissan
Motor Company, and Honda Motor Company. Historically, Japanese
cars made for use in Japan have tended to be small, fuel
efficient, and of limited power. This is because Japan depends
completely on imported oil and many of its streets are too narrow
and crowded for big cars. For export, Japan produces a range of
models to satisfy a variety of buyers.
Many European companies make far fewer vehicles than do Japanese
or American firms because they target their output to the smaller
luxury and sports car markets. Such European producers include
BMW and Porsche of Germany. Other European manufacturers produce
millions of cars each year. These major producers include
Volkswagen of Germany; Peugeot and Renault of France; and Fiat of
Italy.
Some large manufacturing concerns own or control several
automobile companies, often in more than one country. For
example, Volkswagen owns the luxury car manufacturers Audi of
Germany and Rolls Royce of the United Kingdom. Ford owns Jaguar
of the United Kingdom and Volvo of Sweden. It also owns a
controlling interest in Mazda, a Japanese manufacturer. Renault
owns a significant share of Nissan. General Motors owns Saab of
Sweden and controls Isuzu and Suzuki of Japan.
Economic importance of the auto industry extends far
beyond making motor vehicles. Although this activity provides
millions of jobs, supplier industries employ even more people.
And still more millions work in such related businesses as
service stations, repair shops, and car rental agencies.
Manufacturing jobs in the auto industry generally pay well and
offer good benefits. Production workers earn the most money and
receive the best benefits in developed countries. But even in
developing nations, workers make two or three times more in
automotive production than in other manufacturing activities.
The auto industry also aids the economies of many countries by
its huge consumption of the output of other industries. For
example, the typical passenger car requires about 1,790 pounds
(810 kilograms) of steel; 380 pounds (170 kilograms) of iron; 240
pounds (110 kilograms) of plastics; 210 pounds (100 kilograms) of
aluminum; and 140 pounds (60 kilograms) of rubber.
Because automobile manufacturing generates and supports a broad
range of businesses, it can spur growth in developing countries.
Many such nations therefore try to establish an automotive
industry. They also hope to export vehicles to earn money with
which to buy needed imports. The developing nations of South
Korea and Yugoslavia attempted to become major car exporters in
the 1980's. South Korea has had much greater success than
Yugoslavia. During the mid-1990's, South Korea exported about a
third of its car production.
Careers. Rewarding careers can be made in each of the auto
industry's three main activities—manufacturing, selling, and
servicing.
Manufacturing hires college graduates trained as chemists,
engineers, metallurgists, or physicists. Some perform research to
develop the materials, processes, and machinery needed to make
cars. Others work with artists, designers, and drafters to create
new models. The industry also hires college graduates trained in
economics, journalism, marketing, statistics, business
administration, or industrial management.
Most workers who assemble cars or make parts and components are
trained on the job. Some jobs require skilled workers, including
machinists, patternmakers, and tool-and-die makers. Such workers
may spend four to six years as apprentices, learning on the job
and receiving classroom training in mathematics, computer
technology, blueprint reading, and mechanical drawing. Some car
manufacturers and autoworkers' unions run joint apprentice
programs. High school students wanting jobs in automobile trades
should take shop, math, and computer courses.
Selling new or used cars for dealers often requires a
forceful personality. Experience as a mechanic or in business can
be especially useful to jobber salespeople. They sell
automobile parts wholesale to garages and car dealers. Companies
that make materials or parts for car manufacturers also hire
salespeople.
Servicing. Many young people work in garages, gasoline
stations, or the service departments of car dealers. Such young
people may learn car repair from experienced mechanics. Most
workers in dealer service departments receive training in the
shop from the automaker's factory service instructors.
Some workers become specialty mechanics, experts in
repairing certain parts or systems of a car. A car dealer's
service department is headed by a service manager, who
schedules all repairs and assigns the jobs to mechanics. A parts
manager makes sure the service department has enough parts on
hand.
Driving safely
Most people find it easy to drive a car. But operating an
automobile is a complicated and demanding task—and driving
safely is not easy.
Learning to drive. Most automobile accidents involve
drivers who violate traffic laws, lack good driving skills, or
ignore or are unaware of the rules of safe driving. For that
reason, in many countries, a new driver can be granted a license
to operate a car only after passing a series of tests, including
a road sign test, vision test, road rules test, and driving test.
In the United States, most states require a person to be at least
16 years old to be given the privilege of driving. State driver's
license bureaus stress that a driver's license is a privilege,
not a right. Careless, unsafe drivers who break traffic laws risk
losing their licenses.
A qualified instructor provides the best way to learn how to
drive. Many teen-agers learn to drive by taking driver education
classes in high school. Commercial driving schools also teach
beginning drivers. Before learning to drive, a student must
obtain a restricted operator's license, also known as a
provisional license or learner's permit, to practice driving.
Only qualified and experienced adult drivers should accompany a
student who is practicing. Classroom instruction and practice
driving help students sharpen their driving skills and master the
techniques of controlling a moving vehicle. They also learn about
the responsibilities involved in driving a car.
Responsibilities of driving. Operating a car involves
certain responsibilities to oneself and to others. First of all,
a driver must be continuously alert while making a variety of
maneuvers, such as speeding up, slowing down, changing lanes,
turning, and stopping. At the same time, the driver must be aware
of other motor vehicles (including motorcycles), pedestrians,
bicyclists, various road signs, and road hazards. Decisions must
be made quickly and correctly. Drowsiness or illness slows a
driver's ability to react rapidly to changes in traffic
conditions. Driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs is
especially dangerous.
A good driver concentrates on only one thing while
driving—the driving itself. Drivers who become distracted by
cellular phone use or by other activities cause many accidents. A
good driver also has a proper attitude, which means a willingness
to share the road with others. Aggressive behavior—driving
too fast, following another vehicle too closely, or rapid lane
changes—may cause a driver to lose control of the car or
provoke angry reactions in other motorists. Finally, drivers have
the responsibility to see that their cars are properly
maintained.
Defensive driving means anticipating danger to avoid
accidents. A defensive driver stays alert to all possibilities,
such as other vehicles slowing down, entering the roadway, or
stopping suddenly. A defensive driver adjusts the car's speed and
position to suit visibility, the road, and traffic conditions;
slows down before entering a curve; yields the right of way; and
signals well in advance before turning or changing lanes.
History of the automobile
The first cars. During the late 1700's, the development of
steam-powered engines progressed rapidly in Europe. Inventors
dreamed of a "horseless carriage"—and steam seemed
the obvious power source.
The steam car. Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, a French military
engineer, built the first self-propelled road vehicles in 1769
and 1770. One was designed to carry passengers, while the other
was a three-wheeled steam tractor for hauling artillery. In 1801
and 1803, Richard Trevithick of the United Kingdom demonstrated
four-wheeled steam-propelled road vehicles to carry passengers.
But he lacked the money to continue his work.
Numerous attempts in the United Kingdom to promote the use and
development of steam cars failed because of competition from
railroad and stagecoach companies. Early steam cars damaged roads
and sometimes blew up. They also made a terrible racket, dirtied
the air with smoke, and frightened horses. In 1865, the "Red
Flag Law" ended further development of automobiles in the
United Kingdom for about 30 years. Under the law, a steam car
could go no faster than 4 miles (6 kilometers) per hour in the
country and 2 miles (3 kilometers) per hour in town. To warn of
its approach, a signalman had to walk ahead of the vehicle,
swinging a red flag by day and a red lantern by night.
In 1805 in the United States, an inventor named Oliver Evans
demonstrated a steam-operated dredge mounted on a boat. He had
built it to deepen and clean the Philadelphia waterfront. Evans
put wheels on the boat and drove the gigantic machine, which
weighed about 20 tons (18 metric tons), through the streets to
the harbor and into the water. During the 1860's, another
American inventor, Sylvester H. Roper, developed a much smaller
steam vehicle. It looked more like a present-day automobile.
Roper's vehicle received much public attention.
Many other Americans experimented with steam cars during the late
1800's. They included J. N. Carhart, Richard Dudgeon, and Ransom
E. Olds. The number of U.S. companies that made steam cars grew
rapidly. One of the most successful firms was founded by
identical twin brothers, Francis E. and Freelan O. Stanley. They
built the famous Stanley steamer.
Steam cars had big disadvantages. At first, it took too long for
the fire to heat the boiler. Inventors solved that problem, but
others remained. The steam engines had to be small to be
practical for cars, and so they had to be high-pressure engines
to produce the required power. However, such engines cost much to
build and maintain, and the steam-powered car gradually
disappeared. In 1924, the Stanley brothers' company—one of
the last steam car manufacturers—went bankrupt.
The electric car. About 1891, William Morrison, an
American inventor, built a successful electric car. The
six-passenger vehicle was powered by batteries under the seats.
Electric cars quickly became popular because they were quiet,
easy to operate, and free of smelly fumes. In 1900, they
accounted for 38 percent of all U.S. car sales. But the batteries
limited how far or fast electric cars could go. Few electrics
could travel faster than 20 miles (32 kilometers) per hour, and
the batteries had to be recharged at least every 50 miles (80
kilometers). By 1905, only about 7 percent of all cars sold in
the United States were electrics. See Electric car.
The gasoline car. The automobile as we know it today
resulted from the development of the internal-combustion engine.
Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir, a Belgian living in France, patented
the first commercially successful internal-combustion engine in
1860. It burned coke oven gas and was noisy and inefficient. But
Lenoir sold several hundred engines, which powered printing
presses, lathes, and water pumps. He also installed one in a
crude motorcar.
In 1885, Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz, two Germans working
separately, developed the first successful four-stroke gasoline
engines. Their engines led to the development of those used in
most cars today. Many European manufacturers turned out cars
based on Daimler's and Benz's work and patents. In 1891, a French
company, Panhard et Levassor, created the basic design for the
automobile that remained largely unchanged for nearly 100 years.
The firm placed a Daimler engine in the front of the car and used
a revolving chain to transfer power to the rear wheels. In 1898,
the French inventor Louis Renault replaced the chain with a drive
shaft. Most cars had a front engine and rear-wheel drive until
the mid-1980's, when front-wheel drive began to predominate.
A French rubber-making firm, Michelin, introduced the first tires
filled with compressed air for use on cars in 1895. Michelin
developed such pneumatic tires under license from a
British manufacturer of bicycle tires. Many people believe that
the automobile became a practical means of transportation because
of, first, the invention of the internal-combustion engine and,
second, the development of the pneumatic tire.
The birth of the automobile industry occurred in 1885, the
year Daimler and Benz built their successful gasoline engines.
Until 1900, Europe led the world in automobile development and
production. Many present-day European car companies began in the
late 1800's. For example, Peugeot, a French firm, started making
automobiles in 1890. Another French company, Renault, began
producing cars in 1898. Fiat of Italy dates from 1899. France and
Germany became the first large production centers.
The Duryea brothers, Charles E. and J
From the beginning, the auto industry had an enormous impact on
Western economies. As car production increased, the demand for
steel, rubber, glass, machine tools, and other goods essential to
the manufacture of the automobile grew and grew. At the same
time, the industry began to develop its own supporting divisions
for sales, service, and repairs. Employment in the automotive
industry soared.
The discovery of huge oil fields in eastern Texas in 1901 helped
contribute to the rapid growth of the U.S. auto industry. The
discovery caused a sharp drop in the price of gasoline, and
plentiful, cheap fuel made cars relatively inexpensive to
operate. Another factor aiding the U.S. auto industry was the
application of mass-production techniques to the manufacture of
automobiles. Prior to 1900, carmakers had used skilled workers to
assemble each automobile. But American manufacturers had been
using mass-production techniques since the mid-1800's to make
such products as firearms and farm equipment, and it was
inevitable that they would apply this process to carmaking. Once
established, mass production brought the price of U.S. cars down
to a level that many people could afford. By the early 1900's, a
buyer in the United States could choose among a variety of cars
costing less than $1,000, while elegant European models, most of
which were still handcrafted, sold for more than $2,000 in U.S.
dollars.
Many historians credit the 1901 Oldsmobile with being the
first mass-produced car. More than any car before, this
automobile was built of parts made by outside suppliers and
shipped to the assembly plant. Mass production took a giant step
forward in 1904, when Henry M. Leland took charge of the Cadillac
Automobile Company in the United States and began building cars
using interchangeable parts. Such parts could be used to assemble
or repair any car of the same model. Previously, most parts were
made to fit only one particular car.
But more than anyone else, the American industrialist Henry Ford
perfected the mass production of automobiles. In 1913, Ford
installed a moving assembly line in his car factory. The frame of
the car was pulled through the plant by a chain. Workers on each
side assembled the car by adding parts that had been brought to
them on conveyor belts. This process resulted in a huge cut in
production time and costs.
The Detroit pioneers. As the U.S. industry developed, the
Northern industrial cities of Cleveland, Chicago, and Detroit
produced the most cars. Detroit and its surrounding area soon
became the Automobile Capital of the World for several
reasons. Detroit already had many foundries and machine shops and
was a center for making cast-iron stoves and marine engines.
Nearby Flint was a major producer of horse-drawn wagons and
carriages. Detroit's location on the Detroit River made the city
a gateway to ports on the Great Lakes. But Detroit's chief
advantage over other production centers was that it had a large
number of successful pioneer automakers.
Ransom E. Olds began tinkering with steam and electric
engines as a teen-ager. While in his 20's, he built his first
vehicle—a three-wheeled steam-powered car. He helped found
the Olds Motor Works in Detroit in 1899. In 1901, the firm began
to mass-produce its famous curved-dash Oldsmobile, a low-cost
gasoline car. The floorboards curved up in front, forming a
stylish dashboard.
Henry Ford worked as a machinist and engineer in
Detroit when a young man. He built his first successful gasoline
car in 1896 and founded the Ford Motor Company, his third
company, in 1903. His first company failed, and he simply left
the second. Ford introduced his famous Model T
William Crapo Durant became a millionaire by making
carriages in Flint. In 1904, he took control of the Buick Motor
Company, founded by David Dunbar Buick. Durant made Buick a top
automaker by 1908. That year, he organized General Motors Company
with the goal of making cars in a broad range of sizes and
prices. Over the next two years, the company, called GM
Durant lost control of GM
The Dodge brothers, John and Horace, originally produced
bicycles. In 1901, they opened a machine shop in Detroit and soon
built parts for Olds and Ford. The Dodges amassed a fortune from
their business and especially from their purchases of Ford stock.
In 1914, they began making their own autos, which were among the
first American cars with an all-steel body. Buyers liked the new
Dodge—and its price. It cost only slightly more than the
Model T.
Technological advances came quickly after the birth of the
auto industry and helped make cars safer, more comfortable, and
easier to operate. One major development was the introduction of
the electric self-starter. Charles F. Kettering, an American
engineer, invented it in 1911, and General Motors installed the
first ones in its 1912 Cadillacs. The self-starter ended the need
to insert a crank into the front of the engine and then turn the
crank by hand until the engine started. Hand-cranking was
difficult, troublesome, and sometimes dangerous.
In 1914, most U.S. automakers agreed to share use of one
another's patents without cost. This system, called cross-licensing,
ended in 1956. Since then, the automakers have treated their
inventions as private property.
World War I
People continued to purchase cars for personal use. Automobile
production fell for the first time in 1918, reflecting chiefly a
shortage of materials. After the war, the industry expanded
again.
An economic slump struck the United States in 1920 and 1921. The
sagging economy hurt the U.S. auto industry badly and resulted in
major shifts in the leadership of the big companies.
Changes at the top. General Motors common stock plunged as
car sales dried up. Durant had to leave his post as head of GM
Leland left Cadillac in 1917 and founded the Lincoln Motor Car
Company. But the economic slump damaged the company so severely
that Leland sold it to Henry Ford in 1922. The Ford Motor Company
then had a luxury car—the Lincoln—to contrast with its
Model T. But sales of the Model T
Chrysler retired from General Motors as a millionaire in 1919. In
1921, he became president of Maxwell Motor Corporation and
breathed life into the ailing firm. He introduced a new car,
which he called the Chrysler, in 1924. It was an immediate
success. Chrysler renamed the company the Chrysler Corporation.
He bought the Dodge Company in 1928 and introduced two new
makes—the De Soto and the Plymouth—in 1928.
The rise of the Big Three. During the 1920's, the large
manufacturers cut their profits on each car to step up their
sales. Soon, only companies that could make and sell many cars
quickly could stay in business. The number of U.S. automakers
dropped sharply—from 108 in 1923 to 44 by 1927. Throughout
the decade, the Big Three—Ford, General Motors, and
Chrysler—produced most American cars. During this same
period, these companies also set up factories in Australia, the
United Kingdom, and other countries. Small companies, such as
Rolls-Royce in the United Kingdom and Packard in the United
States, built luxury cars with smart styles and elegant features.
These cars became known as classic cars.
The new economic giant. The auto industry became a pillar
of the U.S. economy in the 1920's. Automobile production climbed
from almost 2 million vehicles in 1919 to more than 5 million in
1929. The value of its output exceeded that of any other
industry. Furthermore, it had become basic to the well-being of
industries that produced the basic materials and tools needed to
manufacture automobiles. The establishment of thousands of repair
shops, filling stations, restaurants, and lodging places to serve
the millions of American motorists further stimulated the
economy.
The increasing automobile output reflected the good times of
the 1920's. Americans eagerly spent money on new cars. In
addition, dealers and manufacturers encouraged people to trade in
their old car for a new model or to trade up to a better car.
Those who lacked cash could buy on credit.
The hard times of the 1930's. The auto industry suffered
severely during the Great Depression, which began in October
1929. In the United States, production of all vehicles fell 36
percent in 1930 and 29 percent more in 1931. In 1932, output
plunged an additional 44 percent to about 1,300,000 vehicles, the
lowest volume since the war year of 1918.
Because of plant closings and lowered production, autoworkers
were periodically jobless during the Depression. Ford and
Chrysler lost money, but GM
World War II
Great changes occurred in the auto industry between the start of
World War I
After the war, the auto industry resumed civilian production. The
return of former servicemen and women, the enormous growth of the
suburbs, and the unsatisfied demand for cars during the war all
created a huge market for automakers. In 1949, the industry set a
new production record for the first time since 1929. It set
another record in 1950. During the 1950's, performance and
styling became keys to selling. American cars and European luxury
vehicles became longer, wider, and lower. Cheaper European cars
grew shorter and narrower. Automatic transmission became
available in low-priced cars. Engine power operated air
conditioning, brakes, seats, steering, and the tops of
convertibles.
The Big Three continued to control U.S. auto manufacturing.
Several companies tried to enter the industry in the postwar
years, but all failed by 1955. In 1954, two independent
automakers, Hudson Motor Car Company and Nash-Kelvinator
Corporation, formed American Motors Corporation (AMC). George W.
Romney, head of AMC, strongly promoted the Rambler, the first
successful small, or compact, U.S. car. In 1957, Ford brought out
the Edsel. The company's market research had indicated high
demand for a relatively expensive model. But during the time it
took to bring the Edsel into production, economic conditions and
public taste changed. The vehicle was a financial failure.
By the late 1950's, imports—especially the West German
Volkswagen Beetle—began to take a growing share of the U.S.
market. Imports reached 10 percent in 1959. Sales of imports and
of AMC's Ramblers persuaded the Big Three to enter the small-car
market. In 1959, Ford brought out its compact Falcon, Chevrolet
its Corvair, and Chrysler its Valiant. All the compacts sold
fairly well.
By 1960, 77 percent of all U.S. families owned a car, and 15
percent owned two or more. Roads and highways began to look the
same everywhere, bordered by motels, fast-food restaurants,
filling stations, and shopping centers. About 10,000 miles
(16,000 kilometers) of interstate expressways were in use. More
than ever, the United States was a nation on wheels. In 1964,
Ford introduced the Mustang, a smaller, sportier car than most
compacts. Car buyers loved the Mustang at first sight.
The growth of government regulation. In 1965, an American
lawyer named Ralph Nader wrote Unsafe at Any Speed. The
book attacked Chevrolet's Corvair in particular and the auto
industry in general for emphasizing profits and style over
safety. Corvair sales plunged, and Chevrolet stopped producing
the car in 1969.
The U.S. auto industry had operated largely free of government
regulation. The situation changed in the 1960's, partly because
criticism of the automobile had increased, especially after
Nader's book appeared.
The United States was the first country to pass laws intended to
lower pollution from cars. In 1965, the U.S. Congress passed the
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution and Control Act, which amended the
Clean Air Act of 1963. The new law ordered automakers to reduce
the pollution produced by new cars. The Big Three complied by
modifying the engine. The Clean Air Act of 1970 called for 90
percent reductions in tail pipe pollution. Automakers met this
standard through engine improvements, the use of catalytic
converters, and the change from gasoline containing the chemical tetraethyl
lead to unleaded gasoline. Some countries still allow the use
of gasoline with this additive. The Clean Air Act Amendment of
1990 required tail pipe pollution to be reduced by another 7 to 8
percent by 1997.
The 1966 National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act ordered
certain changes to promote automobile safety. Car buyers'
favorable response to the changes led automakers to provide
safety measures that went beyond the law's requirements.
The rise of international automaking. During the 1960's,
the auto industries of France, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and West
Germany prospered. The Soviet Union and Italy agreed to produce
Italian Fiat cars in the U.S.S.R. The Australian auto industry
thrived, and Argentina and Brazil expanded production. Japan,
however, made the most dramatic progress. Japanese production
skyrocketed from about 50,000 cars in 1958 to more than 2 million
by 1968.
A worldwide petroleum shortage during the 1970's resulted in high
gasoline prices and long lines at filling stations. Many families
with large automobiles switched to smaller, lightweight cars that
were more fuel-efficient. In the United States, imported cars
became popular because of their reputation for fuel efficiency.
By 1980, imports had captured more than 25 percent of the U.S.
market, and Japanese cars accounted for more than 80 percent of
those sales.
During the middle and late 1900's, American automakers preferred
to build plants abroad rather than export their cars. Exports of
U.S. autos thus generally remained low. More than half of the
cars American automakers exported went to Canada. In 1965, the
United States and Canada agreed to the free movement of vehicles
and parts between them. Thus, American automakers could closely
adjust production at their many Canadian plants with operations
at home.
American automakers began to sell imported cars themselves in the
1970's. Chrysler marketed cars made by the Japanese firm of
Mitsubishi. Ford and General Motors retailed pickup trucks made
by Japan's Toyo-Kogyo (now Mazda) and Isuzu, respectively. In
1978, Volkswagen began making cars in Pennsylvania. It became the
first foreign automaker to produce vehicles in the United States
since American Rolls-Royce of the United Kingdom closed its
Massachusetts plant in 1931.
Challenges to the Big Three. The oil shortage led the U.S.
Congress to pass a law in 1975 requiring manufacturers to make
cars more fuel efficient. The 1974 cars averaged 14 miles per
gallon (6 kilometers per liter) of gasoline. Under the new law,
the 1985 models had to average 27
The switch in consumer preference from large cars to small ones
helped Japan surpass the United States as the world's largest
automaker for the first time in 1980. The shiploads of imported
cars pouring into the United States stunned the Big Three. The
price of a new car rose sharply during the early 1980's. As a
result, people kept their old cars longer before buying a new
one.
Chrysler, in deep financial trouble, needed $1
In 1981, the U.S. and Japanese governments placed voluntary
restrictions on the export of Japanese cars to the United States.
The restrictions encouraged Japanese carmakers to produce
vehicles in the United States themselves. By the late 1990's,
several Japanese manufacturers had assembly plants in the United
States.
Light trucks and sturdy SUV's became increasingly popular in the
United States. In the 1990's, U.S. production of such vehicles
surpassed that of passenger cars.
The automobile today. About 450 million passenger cars
travel the streets and roads of the world. Most cars are in the
United States, Japan, Canada, and the countries of Western
Europe. Many people of these nations consider a car a necessity.
In most countries of Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe, and South
America, the car is still regarded as a luxury by the great
majority of the people.
The widespread use of the automobile has resulted in a number of
challenges. Gasoline, the fuel that powers the engines of almost
all cars, is a petroleum product. But most countries do not have
a sufficient supply of oil to meet their energy needs. Also, cars
give off harmful fumes that pollute the air. In addition, traffic
accidents cause thousands of deaths and injuries each year.
Automakers and governments spend large sums of money seeking ways
to reduce the hazards of driving. In the United States, the
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration sets safety
standards for new cars. To meet U.S. federal standards, car
manufacturers must equip new cars with such safety features as
safety belts, air bags, and shatterproof windows. Other required
equipment includes a collapsible steering column and bumpers that
can absorb the impact of collisions. Most other nations have
strong safety regulations but require less safety equipment to be
built into automobiles.
The United States imports far more goods than it exports. The
U.S. auto industry accounts for much of the trade deficit
because it exports relatively little, and yet the United States
is the world's largest importer of cars. A large portion of the
deficit results from trade with Japan, reflecting the many
Japanese cars Americans buy and the parts imported for Japanese
auto plants in the United States.
Cars of tomorrow will probably be increasingly fuel
efficient and less polluting. Internal combustion engines will
probably still power most automobiles. But worries about
pollution will likely increase the use of vehicles that use
alternative fuels, despite their limited range and speed.
Delivery services and other commercial fleets in large cities
will probably use such vehicles. Hybrids, vehicles that
have all the components of electric cars plus another power
source, may serve as a compromise between electrics and
traditional automobiles. Fuel cells, devices that convert
chemical energy to electrical energy, may be used in hybrids.
Computerized controls will do more and more tasks in tomorrow's
cars because of their low cost and precise functioning. With the
flick of a switch, computerized suspension systems will adjust to
changes in the road surface. Computers will also play an
increasing role in creating tomorrow's cars, from the designing
to the engineering to the assembling. The selling and servicing
of cars will also be more and more computerized.
Many modern automobiles include an on-board navigation system.
This electronic device uses a network of satellites called the
Global Positioning System to locate a driver's vehicle. It can
then display a map showing the best route to reach a specific
destination selected by the driver.
______________
Contributors:
• David J. Andrea, M.B.A., Chief Economist, CSM
Worldwide.
• Michael S. Flynn, Ph.D., Associate Director, Office
for the Study of Automotive Transportation, University of
Michigan Transportation Research Institute.
How to cite this article:
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| David
J. Andrea and Michael S. Flynn, "Automobile," World
Book Online Americas Edition, |
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